imiricism

Que 1:- Impiricism:-
In philosophy genrally imparicism is an epistemological concept or a theory of a knowledge emphasizing the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory perception in the formation of ideas while discounting the notion of the innate ideas. In the philosophy of the science empisicism is theory of knowledge which emphasizes those aspects of scientific knowledge that are closely realated to evidence especially as formed through deliberate experimental arrangements. It is a fundamental requirement of scientifica method that all hypotheses and theories must be tested against observation of natural world resting soley on a priori reasoning, intuition or revelation. Hence, science is consider to be methodologically empirical in nature the turm empiricsm etymology.
Scientific Uses:- A central concept in science and a scientific reason is that all evidence must be empirical or empirically best that is dependent on evidence that is observable by the sences it is differentiated from the philosophic uses of empiricsm by the use of adjective empirical an the adverb empirically. Emparicla is use conjunction with both the natural and social science and referce to the use of working hypothesis and are testable using observation or experiment. In this sence of the world scientific statement subject to and derived from are experiences or observation in second sence impirical in scince may be synonymous with experimental. In this sence an empirical result is an experimental observation the term semi impirical some time use to describe theoretical methods which makes basic exioms, established scientific laws and previous experimental result in order to engage in reasoned model building and theoretical inquiry.
Logical Empiricism:- logical empiricism was early 20th century attempt to synthesize the essentical ideas of british empirism (example a strong on sensory exp at the basis for knowledge) with certain inside from mathematical logic that had been developed by Gottlob freez and Ludwig wittegenstien. The new positives subscribed to the notion of the philosophy of the conceptual clearification of the methods inside and discovery of the sciences the saw in logical symbolism elaborated by freege and betraud russel (1872-1970) a powerful instrument which could be used to rationally reconstruct or scientific discourse into an ideal logically perfect language which would be free of the ambiguities and deformation of natural languge this gave rise to what they saw as metaphysical pseudo problems and other conceptal confusion by combining fazes thesis that all mathematical truts are logical with the early. Wittgensteins idea that all logical truts are mere lingutis tautologist they arrieved at the to fold classification of all proposition the analytical the analytic synthetic on the basis they formulated a strong principle demarcation synthesis which have sence those which do not so called verification principle any sentence which is not purly logical for which there is no method was to be considered divided of meaning as a result most metaphysical ethical asthetic and other traditional philosophical came to pseudoproblems.
The extreme empirism of the neopositives was expressed at least before the 1930 in the idea that any genuinely synthetic assertion must be reducible to an ultimate assertion which expresses direct observation or perception in later years carnap and neurath abandoned this sort of phenomenalism in favor of a rational reconstruction of knowledge in to the language of an objective spatio temporal physics. i.e. inted of trasleting sentences about physical objects into sence data such sentences where to be translated into so called protocalled sentences for example X at location at location Y and time T observes such and such. The cental theses of logical positives (verification the analytic synthetic , reductionism etc. 0 came under sharp attack after world war two by think as such as nelson Goodman, W.V. Quine, hilary Putman, Karl popper and riachard Rorty, by the late 1960 it had become evident to most philosophers that the movement had pretty much run its course.






















Que 2:-
Instrumental realism & Instrumentalism:-
Scientific Realism:-
We defined scientific realism above as the common since ( or Common science) conception that, subject to a recognition that scientific methods are fallible and that most scientific knowledge is approximately , we are justified in accenting the most secure findings of scientists at face value. What requires explanation is why this is a philosophical position rather than just a common sense one. Consider, that there really are tropical fish, that the little loops you may about them at let stores find to gel it approximately right about their appearance, behavior food and temperature requirements etc. and that the fish have these fo largely independently of our the ories about them. That a pretty clear doctrine but its so commonsensical that it doesn’t seem to have any particular philosophical import why is the analogous doctrine about science a philosophical doctrine.
The answer is that setting aside skeltisism about the external world there are no philosophical arguments against fresh realism, whereas important philosophical challenges have been raised against scientific realism. The dimensions of scientific realism understood as a philosophical position, have been largely determined by the responses scientific realist have offered to the challenges.
Instrumentalism:-
In the philosophy of science, instrumentalism is the view that concepts and theories are merely useful instruments worth is measured not by whether the concepts and theories are true or false (correctly depict reality) but by how effective they are in explaining and predicting phenomena.
Instrumentalism relates closely to pragmatism. This methodological viewpoint often contrasts with scientific realism, which defines theories as specially being more or less true. However, instrumentalism is more of a pragmatic approach to science, information and theories than an ontological statement. Often instrumentalist (just like pragmatists have been accused of being relativists, even though many instrumentalists are also believers in sturdy objective realism
Instrumentalism denies that theories are truth-evaluable, and that they should be treated like a black box into which you feed observed data, and through which you produce observable predictions. This requires a distinction between terms and statements. Observation statements (O-statement) have their meaning fixed by observable truth conditions, e.g. “the litmus paper is red”, whereas observation terms (O-terms) have their meaning fixed by their referring to observable things or properties, e.g. red. Theoretical statements (T-statements) have their meaning fixed by their function within a theory and aren’t truth evaluable, e.g. the solution is acidic, whereas theoretical terms (T-terms) have their meaning fixed by their systematic function that acidic refers to a real property in an objects, the meaning of the terms can only be explained by reference to a theory about acidity, in contract to red, which is property you can observe statement that mix both T-terms and O-terms are therefore T-statement, since their totally cannot be directly observed.































Que 3:-
On the basis of the study of the sciesmic waves and scismic tomography, it may be concluded that the earth has served density zones inside. The earth consists of there layers, the trust, the mental and the lore.
1. The Crust:- The outer layers and the earths structure varying between 6 Km and 48 Km in thickness, and compressing all the material above the mohoronical discontinuity. It is divided into two shelss, lower, continious layer, the sima ( i.e. silica and magnesia) and a appear, discontinous, layer the sial ( i.e. silica + aluminium) the sial is apparenth confined to the contimental masses.
The crust as whole is thickets beneath the mountains. And thickness under the coceans. It is composed of various friends and rocks. In its upper most part we find redimentory rocks. This redimentary layer is not continuous over the enter surface of the earth and is generally thin. The thickness of the redimentary rock is less than 3.2 km but in areas of folded mountains this may increase to 32 km or more. The redimentory cover is a layer of crystalline rocks, consisting of granite and gneisses in its upper section and basaltic rock in the lower section. Some time this crystalline rocks cover wide areas on the surface of the earth such as the Weston austolia, penisular India middle Africa, brasilian platau, Estern Canada and north east asia.
The contact zone of the crust and the mantle is called mohoronicic or mohodiscontinuity. Here the rocks are different in chemical composition from those below and above. The depth of the moho varies from 5-7 km benith the oceanic planes and 45-70 km from the surface in the folded mounted areas.
2. The mentle:- the layer of the earth between the crust and core with its upper boundry mark by the mohorovicic discontinuity and its lower boundry by Gutenberg discontinuity. The depth of mental varies between 35-2900 KM the density ranges from 3.3 at the mohorovic discontinuity. The mentle composed of dense and regid rocks which have predominance of minerals like magnesium and iron hence, the term peridolite shell which some times use. It has been suggested that there are substantial quantities of sulfides in the upper mental and some nickel iron in the lower mental.
The mental may be divided into two parts :1) the lower middle mental or the mesosphere lower part of asthenosphere like the massosphere is solid, but the upper part of the asthenosphere is plastic and is in a partially molten condition the velocity of the earth quick waves decreases. In the asthenosphere and it is therefore referred as the lower velocity zone.
3. The core:- the central part of the earth is known as core. It probeobly consist of as dense nickel iron alloy(nife) with temperature esteemated about 20070 C. the outer parimeter of the core commences at the Gutenberg discontinuity, 2900 KM from the surface. Where the outer core may be liquide. Within this appear a much denser inner core with redius about 1400 KM which may be solid. The density of the core ranges from 9.5-14.5 and some times even higher.
The S-waves wich can passed through only solid objects, suddenly disappears at a depth of 2900 KM. further at this depth the velocity of the P-waves which can travel through solid, liquide and gaseous abrutptly decreases from 13.7 KM to 8 KM per second. This has been identified as the outer limit of the core.
To conclude the velocity of P-waves through the earth has a solid inner core. A liquide outer core, a thick mental, a soft asthenosphere and a rigid lithosphere.


























Que 2:- Discuss how soil acts as a medium of survical for organic world ?
 The soil acts as a medium of survival for organic world in following manning.
1. Oil has ecosystem:- the plant and animal remains dipsited on or in the soil contractracute organic substances. In the part stages of decomposition, such material is referred to as humnus, a dark colored, amorphous substance composed of residual organic matter not readilling dicomposed by micro-organisms. Indeed the microdial population a large magnitude that set contribute significantly to the organic matter of soil certain agricultureal important properties are contributed to the soil by humus which improves the lecture and structure of soil, contribute to the buffering cpacity, and increase its water holding capacity.
2. Anchorage:- the upper most soil acts as an anchorage for plant roots which obtain material and water present in it.
3. Habitat:- it acts as a subterrian habrtat for watherpods, reptiles, mammale fulfills the requirements for survival of living organization.
4. Gaseious nutrient cycles:-
 Larbon cycle:- the carbon cycle is very complex due to the fact that carbon can exists in a wide variety of different types of compounds, occupying in plants, animals, rocks, carbonaceous materials are Co2, Co, carbonates and organic carboniouse material.
The geological components of the system is by for the largest, containing more than 99 percent of the total carbon, it involves the deposition of plant and animal material as feat, coal, and oil and of such animal remains as moduls shells and protozone, as carbonate rocks. The dissolved C02, combines with water in the soil to form carbonic acid (H2Co3) in a reversible reaction. Animals return fixed carbon to the soil in the waste they excreate. When plants and animals die, they return their carbon to the soil.

 Nitrogen Cycle:- when animal defecate, this waste materials is broken down by worms and insects, mostely batles and ants. These small soil animals break. The waste material into smaller buts on which microscopic bacteria and fungi can act. Nitrogen fixation is accomplanied by two groups of micro organisms i.e.
1) Nonsymbiotic micro-organism.
2) Symbiotic micro-organism.
 Nonsymbiotic:- those micro organism which live freely and independently in the soil. e.g. clostridium pasteriamim and specials of azotobacter bacteria.
 Symiotic micro-organism :- it is accomplished by bacteria of the genus rhizolium in association with legumes.

5. Sedimentory nutrient Cycle:-
a) Sulfur cycle:- most of the biologically incorporated sulfahydral sulphus (-SH) is mineralized by bacteria and fungi in ordinary decomposition by speicies of aspergillus and neurospora, among others under amaerobic condition however some may be reduced directly to sulfides, including hydrogen sulphide (H2S) by bacteria belonging such gerva as Escherichia and protcus present in soil .
colorless sulffer bacteria, such as species of beggiatoa oxidize hydrogen sulfide to elemental suffer and specius of thiobacillus oxidize it to sulfate, other specis of thiobacillus oxidize sulfide to suffur.
b) Phosphorous Cycles:- when socks are weather, minute amounts of these phosphates and become available to plants. The escreta to soil also adds phosphorous.
6. minerals:- the dominant mineral particles in soils are compounds of silicon, aluminium potassiume and iron and lesser amount of other miniral are calcium, magnesium, potassium, tetamiu, manganese, sodium, nitrogen, phosphorous and sulfur. They acts as micro an micro nutrients for plants and animals.
7. Substracturm:- The soil may be considered as land surface of the earth which provides the substaratum for plant and animals.
8. Agriculture:- soil plays important role for cultivating food crops for fulfill the food reuirement of population.
9. Constractions:- the bricks made up of soil are used for constitution of houress and building.












Que: - what is ISO14000? Explain in detail the ISO 14000 standard programme in organization?
It is a family of volumatory standard and guidance which document to help organization to address environmental issues.
ISO: - International Standard Organisation.
Series 14000:- it is a series which include manufacturing, processing, service, forestry, computing, engineering etc. every thing related to human interest.
The international standard organization (ISO) and international electro technical commission (IEC) jointly set up a strategic advisory group on the environment (SAGE0 in 1991. this committee at their meeting TC 207 in July 1993, agreed to set up a number of subcommittees (SC0 to deal with:
SC1- Environment management system
SC2- Environment auditing.
SC3- Environment labeling.
SC4- Environmental performance evaluation.
SC5- Life cycle anlysis,
SC6- term and definations.
Each of the subcommittee further set up working groups (WGs) for dipperoprate functioning. The ISO-14000 have five basic principle.
• Should focus on what needs to be done.
• Should formulate a plan to fulfil its environmental policy.
• Should develop the capabilities and support mechanism necessary to achieve its environmental policy.
• Should measure monitor and evaluate its environmental performance.
• Should serview and continually improve its environmental management system.

Progress in the development of enviomnental management and environmental auditing standards has been rapid, thanks to the enthausasm of the committec members representing 70 countries and the support of the various stock. Holders industry, governments, inter-goverments and non-government organizations.

The iso 14001 approach:-
Which most governments have enacted registration aimed at protecgting the environment it is generally recognized that policing the compliance of industry to environmentsal legislation is no easy task in view of the large at the disposal of the enforcement agencies voluntary implementation by industrial firms of an environmental management system, according to IDO14001, can go a long way towards ensuring compliance firms with their environmental performance.
Indeed the ISO 14001 standard stipulates that the imphlementing organization shall have an environmental policy defined by top management and communicated to all employees the standard requires the organization to establish a procedure for identifying aspects of its activities with singnificant impacts on the environment, as well as taping stock of legislation applicable to the environmental aspects of its activities, products or services as basis for actions to improve the environmental for performance.
As the case in other management systems standards, ISO 14001 sets out procedure end measures that ensure that the environmetal management system of company is appropriate effective and rediable these measures include the clear definition of responsibility and authority an enhanced level of awardness and competence of all employees achived through training effective internal and external communication controlled documentation and procedures for initiating corrective actionl the standsard also requires the organization procedure to identity potential for accidents and emergency situation and to institute emeragency preparedness to preavent and mitigate their envireoment impacts they occure.
Similalary, to quality management system standarad ISO 14001 institutes procedure for checking the effectiveness of the environment of management system normally, record keeping, regular internal audits and a periodic management review of the continued effectiveness of the system.
Impact on developing countries:-
Since the pulfication and wide spread implementation of quality manangement system standard(ISO9000) a debate has been reging in developing countries if the latter cannot implement or cannot demonstatrat that they are effectively implenating the standard. Skeptics in developing countries go to the extent of saying that ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 (as well as the whole of the GATT agreament) are similarly ploys immented by imdustralised countries to stop the export of products from developing contries which complete with their own products. These claims are contered by voices from industerialised countries which say that if developing countries do not follow the progress of technology in the area of quality and preservation of the environments, they cannot expect their products to the welcomed in other markets.